Expansion of Applicable Sphere: A way to Uniformity
——Compare and Contrast between UNIDROIT and UNCITRAL Conventions
By Dongsheng Lu, Chen Yan
I. Introduction
Financing is paramount for the promotion of commerce. It has been noted that “in developed countries the bulk of corporate wealth is locked up in receivables”. As the economy develops, this wealth increasing is “unlocked by transferring receivables across national borders”. With the prompt and great increases in international trade, receivables financing now plays a more and more important role. Yet under the law of many countries, certain forms of receivables financing are still not recognized. Even transactions are involved in countries where the form of receivables financing is permitted, determining which law governs will be difficult. The disparity among laws of different jurisdiction increases uncertainty in transactions, thus constitutes obstacles to the development of assignments of receivables. To remove such obstacles arising from the uncertainty existing in various legal systems and promote the development of receivables financing cross-boarder, a set of uniform rules in this field is required. The international community has made great efforts in adopting uniform laws. Among those efforts, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) drafted, on 12 December, 2001, “United Nations Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNCITRAL Convention”), with its aim to “establish principles and to adopt rules relating to the assignment of receivables that would create certainty and transparency and promote the modernization of the law relating to assignments of receivables”. UNCITRAL is not the first international organization attempting to resolve the problems associated with receivables. As early as in May 1988, the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) has already adopted a convention known as the “UNIDROIT Convention on International Factoring” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNIDROIT Convention”).
When compare and contrast between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, one might see a lot of inconsistency in detailed regulations, e.g. sphere of application, relations between parties, priorities, and choice of law, etc. Given the limited space available in this article, the author may only focus on the difference in “sphere of application” of these two conventions, as sphere of application is perhaps the most fundamental issue of a convention.
The purpose of an international convention is to create uniformity in its covered matter, thus the broader a convention’s sphere of application is, the higher could uniformity reach. This article will try to make compare and contrast the sphere of application between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, illustrate the differences exist between these two conventions, and demonstrate the expansion of sphere of application in the UNCITRAL Convention and its progress on the way to uniformity.
II. Sphere of Application: Subject Matter
As its title indicates, the subject matter of the UNIDROIT Convention is of course international factoring. Article 1(1) says, “this Convention governs factoring contracts and assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter.”
For “factoring contract”, the UNIDROIT Convention provides the following 4 characteristics:
(1) purpose of the contract is to assign receivables;
(2) receivables to be assigned arises from contracts of sale of goods made between the supplier and its customers (debtors), other than those of sale of goods bought primarily for personal, family or household use;
(3) the factor is to perform at least two of the four functions: (i) finance for the supplier; (ii) maintenance of accounts (ledgering) relating to the receivables; (iii) collection of receivables; and (iv) protection against default in payment by debtors;
(4) notice of the assignment of the receivables is to be given to debtors.
As about “assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter”, article 2 (1) describes assignments of receivables as assignment of receivables pursuant to a factoring contract.
Factoring is just a subset of the receivables financing, and perhaps the oldest and most basic one. Besides factoring, receivables financing still entail the following forms,
(1) Forfeiting, similar to factoring, involves the purchase or discounting of documentary receivables (promissory notes, for example) without recourse to the party from whom the receivables are purchased;
(2) Refinancing, also known as secondary financing, involves the subsequent assignment of receivables. In its basic form, one bank or financier will assign to another bank its interest, with the potential for further assignment;
(3) Securitization, in which both marketable (for example, trade receivables) and non-marketable (consumer credit card receivables) asset cash flows are repackaged by a lender and transferred to a lender-controlled company, which will issue securities, sell and then use the proceeds to purchase the receivables;
(4) Project Finance, in which repayment of loans made by banks or financiers to project contractors for the financing of projects are secured through the future revenues of the project.
The first draft of the UNCITRAL Convention has stated to cover factoring, forfeiting, refinancing, securitization and project finance. Somehow, the working group decides that rather than emphasize the form in which the receivables appear, it would instead concentrate on the way in which the receivables might be transferred (contractual or non-contractual) and the purpose of the transaction (for financing or non-financing purposes). It decides the contractual receivables and assignment made to secure financing and other related services would be covered. The non-contractual receivables such as insurance and tort receivables, deposit bank accounts, or claims arising by operation of law seems are not within the ambits of the UNCITRAL convention.
III. Sphere of Application: Special Requirements
Both of the conventions contain a series of requirements. Only when those requirements are satisfied, could the convention be applied. The higher and stricter the requirements are, the smaller the chance to apply the convention is.
a) Internationality requirement
Both the two conventions indicate their sphere of application is of internationality requirement, but the same word in these two conventions has different legal meaning. The internationality requirement of UNIDROIT Convention is exclusively based upon the parties to the underlying contract, i.e. the contract of sale of goods (the supplier and the debtor) having their place of business in different countries. In other words, where the receivables arise from a contract of sale of goods between a supplier and a debtor whose places of business are in the same State, the UNIDROIT Convention could not apply, no matter the following assignment of receivables is to assignee in the same or different State. Thus leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables untouched. The problem, at its simplest, is twofold: first, inconsistency. For instance, in the case where a bulk assignment is made and where part of the receivables are domestic (supplier and debtor are in the same State) and part are international (supplier and debtor are in different State), if the supplier assigns the receivables to a party which is located in another State, the bulk assignment between the same supplier and the same assignee will be governed by two sets of laws and regulations: the portion of international receivables may be governed by the UNIDROIT Convention while the domestic one will be left to the jurisdiction of certain domestic law.
Secondly, leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables to the jurisdiction of various law systems of different States can make “commercial practice uncertain, time-consuming and expensive”. The assignee of receivables from a foreign State may not know which State’s law governs the transaction, and, if the law of the assignor’s State applies, the assignee’s rights would be subject to the vagaries of that foreign law. This no doubt would greatly impede the development of such transaction.
贵州省宗教事务管理条例
贵州省人大常委会
贵州省宗教事务管理条例
贵州省人民代表大会常务委员会
(2000年7月22日经贵州省第九届人民代表大会常务委员会第十七次会议通过)
第一章 总则
第一条 为保障公民的宗教信仰自由,依法管理宗教事务,根据《中华人民共和国宪法》和有关法律、法规,结合本省实际,制定本条例。
第二条 本条例所称宗教是指佛教、道教、伊斯兰教、天主教和基督教。
本条例所称宗教事务是指宗教与国家、社会、个人之间存在的各项社会公共事务。
第三条 本省行政区域内的机关、团体、企业事业单位和公民应遵守本条例。
第四条 宗教团体应坚持独立自主自办的原则。
宗教团体和宗教事务不受外国势力的支配。
第五条 宗教活动必须在宪法、法律、法规和国家有关规定的范围内进行。任何组织和个人不得利用宗教干预国家行政、司法、学校教育和社会公共教育,不得利用宗教进行违法犯罪活动。
第六条 宗教团体、宗教活动场所、宗教教职人员、信教公民的合法权益和正常的宗教活动受法律保护。
第七条 县级以上人民政府宗教事务部门是本行政区域内宗教事务的行政主管部门,依法管理本行政区域内的宗教事务。
县级以上人民政府有关行政部门、乡级人民政府应按各自职责做好宗教事务工作。
第二章 宗教团体
第八条 本条例所称宗教团体是指信教公民依法成立的佛教协会、道教协会、伊斯兰教协会、天主教爱国会、天主教教务委员会、基督教三自爱国运动委员会、基督教协会及其他依法成立的宗教组织。
第九条 宗教团体必须依照国家有关社会团体登记管理规定,经县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门审查同意后,向相应的社会团体登记管理机关申请登记。经核准登记后方可进行活动。具备法人条件的,依法取得法人资格。
第十条 宗教团体应遵守宪法、法律、法规,接受当地人民政府的行政管理。
宗教团体应协助人民政府贯彻实施有关宗教的法律、法规及有关规定;对宗教教职人员和信教公民进行爱国主义、社会主义教育和法制教育;维护宗教教职人员和信教公民的合法权益。
宗教团体应实行民主办教,建立和完善人事、财务、教务等管理制度,按本团体章程开展活动。
第十一条 宗教团体可进行宗教文化学术研究和交流活动。
出版、复制、制作、印刷和发行宗教书刊、宗教印刷品、宗教音像制品,应经省人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门同意后,按国家有关规定办理。
宗教团体、宗教活动场所内部使用和编印的宗教经像书刊,不得在宗教团体和宗教活动场所外发行、销售。
第十二条 宗教院校由省宗教团体开办,并按国家有关规定报批。
宗教团体经县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门同意,可以举办宗教教职人员进修班、培训班。
第十三条 宗教团体依法可申办以自养为目的的企业、事业,举办社会公益事业。
第三章 宗教教职人员
第十四条 本条例所称宗教教职人员是指佛教的僧、尼,道教的道士、道姑,伊斯兰教的阿訇,天主教的主教、神甫、修士、修女,基督教的牧师、教师、长老以及宗教团体认定的其他人员。
第十五条 宗教教职人员的教职身份须经宗教活动场所管理组织申报,当地宗教团体审查,由省宗教团体按规定程序认定发证,并向该宗教教职人员所在地县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门备案。
辞去、被解除宗教教职的人员,由省宗教团体收回其宗教教职资格证书,并通报原备案的人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门。
宗教教职人员教职资格证书由省人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门监制。
第十六条 宗教教职人员应依法履行教职,在规定的教务区域内开展宗教活动,并接受所在宗教活动场所的管理组织、宗教团体和当地人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门的管理、监督。
辞去、被解除宗教教职或未经认定发证、备案的人员不得主持宗教活动。
第十七条 宗教教职人员可从事宗教文化学术研究和交流,参与所在宗教活动场所的管理,保护宗教活动场所的建筑设施、文物和环境。
第十八条 邀请外省宗教教职人员来本省以及本省宗教教职人员应邀赴外省主持宗教活动,须经省宗教团体同意,并事先报省人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门备案。
跨规定的教务区域进行宗教教务活动须经当地和活动所在地县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门同意。
第四章 宗教活动场所
第十九条 本条例所称宗教活动场所是指开展宗教活动的寺院、宫观、清真寺、教堂和其他固定处所。
宗教活动场所应依法进行登记、年检。具备法人条件的,依法取得法人资格。
宗教活动场所终止、合并、迁移或变更登记内容应向原登记机关办理相应手续。
第二十条 新建、重建宗教活动场所,由县级人民政府逐级上报省人民政府批准;扩建、改造宗教活动场所,由县级以上人民政府批准,并按国家有关规定办理手续。
第二十一条 宗教活动场所由该场所的管理组织自主管理。
宗教活动场所管理组织应实行民主管理,建立和完善人事、财务、教务等管理制度。
第二十二条 在宗教活动场所内,该场所的管理组织可按国家有关规定经销宗教用品、宗教艺术品和宗教经像书刊。
第二十三条 在宗教活动场所管理范围内改建或新建建筑物,设立商业、服务业网点或举办陈列、展览、拍摄电影电视等活动,必须征得该场所管理组织和县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门同意后,到有关部门办理手续。
第二十四条 宗教活动场所可以接受信教公民自愿的布施、奉献、乜贴和其他宗教性捐献。
第二十五条 宗教活动场所内不得进行占卜、算命、看相、驱鬼治病等迷信活动。
第二十六条 被列为文物保护单位或位于风景名胜区的宗教活动场所,应按照有关法律、法规的规定,管理、保护文物和环境,并接受有关部门的指导和监督。
第五章 宗教活动
第二十七条 本条例所称宗教活动是指信教公民在宗教活动场所内依照教规教义进行的拜佛、诵经、烧香、礼拜、祈祷、讲经、讲道、弥撒、受洗、受戒、封斋、追思、过宗教节日,以及信教公民按宗教习惯在自己家里过宗教生活。
第二十八条 集体宗教活动应在宗教活动场所内进行,由宗教教职人员主持。
第二十九条 任何组织和个人不得在宗教活动场所内进行不同信仰、不同宗教、不同教派之间的宣传和争论;不得在宗教活动场所外布道传教、以宗教名义敛财或散发宗教宣传品。
第三十条 举办跨州、市、地、县(市、区)或大型的宗教活动,举办者应于30日前向当地县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门申请,宗教事务行政主管部门应于受理之日起15日内予以审批。
第三十一条 举行宗教活动不得妨碍社会秩序、生产秩序、工作秩序、生活秩序,不得损害公民身体健康及其他合法权益。
第六章 宗教财产
第三十二条 本条例所称宗教财产是指宗教团体、宗教活动场所依法所有或管理、使用的房地产、各类设施、宗教收入以及所属企业事业的合法资产和收入。
宗教财产受法律保护,任何组织和个人不得侵占或无偿调用。
宗教团体、宗教活动场所的房产可依法出租。
第三十三条 宗教团体、宗教活动场所依法所有或者管理、使用的土地、山林、房屋等,由该宗教团体或宗教活动场所的管理组织按照规定领取使用证书或产权证书。发生变更时,应当依法办理变更登记。
第三十四条 宗教团体和宗教活动场所应建立财产管理制度,并接受人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门和有关部门的监督、指导。
第三十五条 因建设需要征用宗教团体、宗教活动场所管理、使用的土地、山林、房屋等,应与宗教团体、宗教活动场所协商,并征求人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门的意见,按《中华人民共和国土地管理法》和国家有关规定办理手续。
第七章 涉外宗教事务
第三十六条 宗教团体、宗教活动场所和宗教界人士在同国外宗教组织和宗教界人士开展友好往来和宗教文化学术交流活动中,应坚持独立自主、互相尊重、互不干涉、平等友好的原则。
第三十七条 邀请国外宗教组织、宗教界人士来访或本省宗教团体、宗教活动场所和宗教界的人士应邀出访,应由省宗教团体申请,经省人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门同意,并按国家有关规定办理。
第三十八条 外国人可在经核准登记和县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门认可的宗教活动场所参加宗教活动;经省宗教团体邀请,可讲经、讲道。
本省宗教教职人员应外国人邀请,可为其举行洗礼、婚礼、葬礼和道场法会等宗教仪式。
第三十九条 外国人在本省进行宗教活动,应遵守中国的法律、法规;不得成立宗教组织、设立宗教办事机构、宗教活动场所和开办宗教院校;不得在中国公民中发展教徒、委任宗教教职人员、散发宗教书刊、宗教印刷品、宗教音像制品和进行其他传教活动。
第四十条 宗教团体、宗教活动场所和宗教界人士接受国外宗教组织和宗教界人士的捐赠,按国家有关规定办理。
宗教团体、宗教活动场所和宗教界人士不得接受国外宗教组织和宗教界人士的指令、津贴和传教经费。
第四十一条 任何组织和个人在进行对外经贸、科技、文化、教育、卫生、体育、旅游等合作与交流中,不得接受对方附加的宗教条件。
第八章 法律责任
第四十二条 有下列行为之一的,由县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门责令停止活动,视情节轻重,分别给予警告、撤销宗教活动场所登记、没收违法所得,并可处以500元以上1000元以下罚款,对直接责任人处以100元以上500元以下罚款:
(一)辞去、被解除宗教教职或未经认定发证、备案的人员主持宗教活动的;
(二)擅自开办宗教院校或举办宗教教职人员进修班、培训班的;
(三)在宗教活动场所内进行占卜、算命、看相、驱鬼治病等迷信活动的;
(四)在未经依法登记的宗教活动场所内开展宗教活动的;
(五)未经同意,跨规定的教务区域进行宗教教务活动的;
(六)擅自邀请外国人在宗教活动场所讲经、讲道的;
(七)接受国外宗教组织、宗教界人士的指令、津贴和传教经费的;
(八)未经审批,举办跨州、市、地、县(市、区)或大型的宗教活动的;
(九)在宗教团体、宗教活动场所外发行、销售经像书刊的。
第四十三条 有下列行为之一的,由县级以上宗教事务行政主管部门配合有关行政主管部门,根据有关法律、法规的规定给予处罚:
(一)擅自成立宗教团体或未经核准登记即以宗教团体名义开展宗教活动的;
(二)干扰正常宗教活动造成不良后果的;
(三)侵占、损害宗教团体、宗教活动场所合法财产的;
(四)举行宗教活动,妨碍社会秩序、生产秩序、工作秩序、生活秩序或损害公民身体健康及其他合法权益的;
(五)未经批准,新建、重建、扩建、改建宗教活动场所的;
(六)未经批准,出版、复制、制作、印刷和发行宗教书刊、宗教印刷品或宗教音像制品的;
(七)擅自在宗教活动场所管理范围内设立商业、服务业网点或者举办陈列、展览、拍摄电影电视等活动的;
(八)在宗教活动场所外布道传教、以宗教名义敛财或散发宗教宣传品的。
第四十四条 国家工作人员在宗教事务管理工作中滥用职权、玩忽职守、徇私舞弊的,由其所在单位或上级主管部门责令改正或给予行政处分。
第四十五条 外国人违反本条例,由县级以上人民政府宗教事务行政主管部门和有关部门予以劝阻、制止;情节严重的,由有关部门依法处理。
第九章 附则
第四十六条 侨居国外的中国公民和香港、澳门特别行政区、台湾的居民在本省进行宗教活动,参照本条例执行。
第四十七条 本条例自2000年11月1日起施行。
2000年7月22日